PARP inhibition is a modulator of anti-tumor immune response in BRCA-deficient tumors.

PARP inhibitors are synthetically lethal with BRCA1/2 mutations, and in this setting, accumulation of DNA damage leads to cell death. Because increased DNA damage and subsequent immune activation can prime an anti-tumor immune response, we studied the impact of olaparib ± immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) on anti-tumor activity and the immune microenvironment. Concurrent combination of olaparib, at clinically relevant exposures, with ICB gave durable and deeper anti-tumor activity in the Brca1m BR5 model vs. monotherapies. Olaparib and combination treatment modulated the immune microenvironment, including increases in CD8+ T cells and NK cells, and upregulation of immune pathways, including type I IFN and STING signaling. Olaparib also induced a dose-dependent upregulation of immune pathways, including JAK/STAT, STING and type I IFN, in the tumor cell compartment of a BRCA1m (HBCx-10) but not a BRCA WT (HBCx-9) breast PDX model. In vitro, olaparib induced BRCAm tumor cell-specific dendritic cell transactivation. Relevance to human disease was assessed using patient samples from the MEDIOLA (NCT02734004) trial, which showed increased type I IFN, STING, and JAK/STAT pathway expression following olaparib treatment, in line with preclinical findings. These data together provide evidence for a mechanism and schedule underpinning potential benefit of ICB combination with olaparib.

A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model for the MET tyrosine kinase inhibitor, savolitinib, to explore target inhibition requirements for anti-tumour activity.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Savolitinib (AZD6094, HMPL-504, volitinib) is an oral, potent, and highly MET receptor TK inhibitor. This series of studies aimed to develop a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model to link inhibition of MET phosphorylation (pMET) by savolitinib with anti-tumour activity. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Cell line-derived xenograft (CDX) experiments using human lung cancer (EBC-1) and gastric cancer (MKN-45) cells were conducted in athymic nude mice using a variety of doses and schedules of savolitinib. Tumour pMET changes and growth inhibition were calculated after 28 days. Population PK/PD techniques were used to construct a PK/PD model for savolitinib. KEY RESULTS: Savolitinib showed dose- and dose frequency-dependent anti-tumour activity in the CDX models, with more frequent, lower dosing schedules (e.g., twice daily) being more effective than intermittent, higher dosing schedules (e.g., 4 days on/3 days off or 2 days on/5 days off). There was a clear exposure-response relationship, with maximal suppression of pMET of >90%. Data from additional CDX and patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models overlapped, allowing calculation of a single EC50 of 0.38 ng·ml-1 . Tumour growth modelling demonstrated that prolonged, high levels of pMET inhibition (>90%) were required for tumour stasis and regression in the models. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: High and persistent levels of MET inhibition by savolitinib were needed for optimal monotherapy anti-tumour activity in preclinical models. The modelling framework developed here can be used to translate tumour growth inhibition from the mouse to human and thus guide choice of clinical dose and schedule.

Targeting Bfl-1 via acute CDK9 inhibition overcomes intrinsic BH3-mimetic resistance in lymphomas.

BH3 mimetics like venetoclax target prosurvival Bcl-2 family proteins and are important therapeutics in the treatment of hematological malignancies. We demonstrate that endogenous Bfl-1 expression can render preclinical lymphoma tumor models insensitive to Mcl-1 and Bcl-2 inhibitors. However, suppression of Bfl-1 alone was insufficient to fully induce apoptosis in Bfl-1-expressing lymphomas, highlighting the need for targeting additional prosurvival proteins in this context. Importantly, we demonstrated that cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) inhibitors rapidly downregulate both Bfl-1 and Mcl-1, inducing apoptosis in BH3-mimetic-resistant lymphoma cell lines in vitro and driving in vivo tumor regressions in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma patient-derived xenograft models expressing Bfl-1. These data underscore the need to clinically develop CDK9 inhibitors, like AZD4573, for the treatment of lymphomas using Bfl-1 as a selection biomarker.

Discovery of AZD4573, a Potent and Selective Inhibitor of CDK9 That Enables Short Duration of Target Engagement for the Treatment of Hematological Malignancies.

A CDK9 inhibitor having short target engagement would enable a reduction of Mcl-1 activity, resulting in apoptosis in cancer cells dependent on Mcl-1 for survival. We report the optimization of a series of amidopyridines (from compound 2), focusing on properties suitable for achieving short target engagement after intravenous administration. By increasing potency and human metabolic clearance, we identified compound 24, a potent and selective CDK9 inhibitor with suitable predicted human pharmacokinetic properties to deliver transient inhibition of CDK9. Furthermore, the solubility of 24 was considered adequate to allow i.v. formulation at the anticipated effective dose. Short-term treatment with compound 24 led to a rapid dose- and time-dependent decrease of pSer2-RNAP2 and Mcl-1, resulting in cell apoptosis in multiple hematological cancer cell lines. Intermittent dosing of compound 24 demonstrated efficacy in xenograft models derived from multiple hematological tumors. Compound 24 is currently in clinical trials for the treatment of hematological malignancies.

AZD4573 Is a Highly Selective CDK9 Inhibitor That Suppresses MCL-1 and Induces Apoptosis in Hematologic Cancer Cells.

PURPOSE: Cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) is a transcriptional regulator and potential therapeutic target for many cancers. Multiple nonselective CDK9 inhibitors have progressed clinically but were limited by a narrow therapeutic window. This work describes a novel, potent, and highly selective CDK9 inhibitor, AZD4573. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The antitumor activity of AZD4573 was determined across broad cancer cell line panels in vitro as well as cell line- and patient-derived xenograft models in vivo. Multiple approaches, including integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analyses, loss-of-function pathway interrogation, and pharmacologic comparisons, were employed to further understand the major mechanism driving AZD4573 activity and to establish an exposure/effect relationship. RESULTS: AZD4573 is a highly selective and potent CDK9 inhibitor. It demonstrated rapid induction of apoptosis and subsequent cell death broadly across hematologic cancer models in vitro, and MCL-1 depletion in a dose- and time-dependent manner was identified as a major mechanism through which AZD4573 induces cell death in tumor cells. This pharmacodynamic (PD) response was also observed in vivo, which led to regressions in both subcutaneous tumor xenografts and disseminated models at tolerated doses both as monotherapy or in combination with venetoclax. This understanding of the mechanism, exposure, and antitumor activity of AZD4573 facilitated development of a robust pharmacokinetic/PD/efficacy model used to inform the clinical trial design. CONCLUSIONS: Selective targeting of CDK9 enables the indirect inhibition of MCL-1, providing a therapeutic option for MCL-1-dependent diseases. Accordingly, AZD4573 is currently being evaluated in a phase I clinical trial for patients with hematologic malignancies (clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT03263637).See related commentary by Alcon et al., p. 761.

Ceftaroline efficacy against high-MIC clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates in an in vitro hollow-fibre infection model.

Objectives: The current CLSI and EUCAST clinical susceptible breakpoint for 600 mg q12h dosing of ceftaroline (active metabolite of ceftaroline fosamil) for Staphylococcus aureus is ≤1 mg/L. Efficacy data for S. aureus infections with ceftaroline MIC ≥2 mg/L are limited. This study was designed to generate in-depth pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) understanding of S. aureus isolates inhibited by ≥ 2 mg/L ceftaroline using an in vitro hollow-fibre infection model (HFIM). Methods: The PK/PD target of ceftaroline was investigated against 12 diverse characterized clinical MRSA isolates with ceftaroline MICs of 2 or 4 mg/L using q8h dosing for 24 h. These isolates carried substitutions in the penicillin-binding domain (PBD) and/or the non-PBD. Additionally, PD responses of mutants with ceftaroline MICs ranging from 2 to 32 mg/L were evaluated against the mean 600 mg q8h human-simulated dose over 72 h. Results: The mean stasis, 1 log10-kill and 2 log10-kill PK/PD targets were 29%, 32% and 35% f T>MIC, respectively. In addition, these data suggest that the PK/PD target for MRSA is not impacted by the presence of substitutions in the non-PBD commonly found in isolates with ceftaroline MIC values of ≤ 2 mg/L. HFIM studies with 600 mg q8h dosing demonstrated a sustained long-term bacterial suppression for isolates with ceftaroline MICs of 2 and 4 mg/L. Conclusions: Overall, efficacy was demonstrated against a diverse collection of clinical isolates using HFIM indicating the utility of 600 mg ceftaroline fosamil for S. aureus isolates with MIC ≤4 mg/L using q8h dosing.

Discovery of inhibitors of 4'-phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase (PPAT) to validate PPAT as a target for antibacterial therapy.

Inhibitors of 4'-phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase (PPAT) were identified through high-throughput screening of the AstraZeneca compound library. One series, cycloalkyl pyrimidines, showed inhibition of PPAT isozymes from several species, with the most potent inhibition of enzymes from Gram-positive species. Mode-of-inhibition studies with Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus PPAT demonstrated representatives of this series to be reversible inhibitors competitive with phosphopantetheine and uncompetitive with ATP, binding to the enzyme-ATP complex. The potency of this series was optimized using structure-based design, and inhibition of cell growth of Gram-positive species was achieved. Mode-of-action studies, using generation of resistant mutants with targeted sequencing as well as constructs that overexpress PPAT, demonstrated that growth suppression was due to inhibition of PPAT. An effect on bacterial burden was demonstrated in mouse lung and thigh infection models, but further optimization of dosing requirements and compound properties is needed before these compounds can be considered for progress into clinical development. These studies validated PPAT as a novel target for antibacterial therapy.

Laser capture microdissection and genetic analysis of carbon-labeled Kupffer cells.

AIM: To develop a method of labeling and micro-dissecting mouse Kupffer cells within an extraordinarily short period of time using laser capture microdissection (LCM). METHODS: Tissues are complex structures comprised of a heterogeneous population of interconnected cells. LCM offers a method of isolating a single cell type from specific regions of a tissue section. LCM is an essential approach used in conjunction with molecular analysis to study the functional interaction of cells in their native tissue environment. The process of labeling and acquiring cells by LCM prior to mRNA isolation can be elaborate, thereby subjecting the RNA to considerable degradation. Kupffer cell labeling is achieved by injecting India ink intravenously, thus circumventing the need for in vitro staining. The significance of this novel approach was validated using a cholestatic liver injury model. RESULTS: mRNA extracted from the microdissected cell population displayed marked increases in colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor and Kupffer cell receptor message expression, which demonstrated Kupffer cell enrichment. Gene expression by Kupffer cells derived from bile-duct-ligated, versus sham-operated, mice was compared. Microarray analysis revealed a significant (2.5-fold, q value < 10) change in 493 genes. Based on this fold-change and a standardized PubMed search, 10 genes were identified that were relevant to the ability of Kupffer cells to suppress liver injury. CONCLUSION: The methodology outlined herein provides an approach to isolating high quality RNA from Kupffer cells, without altering the tissue integrity.

Generation and characterization of an immunogenic dendritic cell population.

Dendritic cells (DCs) capture, internalize and process antigens leading to the induction of antigen-specific immune responses. The aim of this study was to develop, implement and characterize an efficient approach for DC-based immunization. Dendritic cells were expanded in vivo by hydrodynamic delivery of a human flt3 ligand expression plasmid. Splenic DCs were isolated and purified with magnetic beads linked to hepatitis C virus (HCV) nonstructural protein-5 (NS5), anti-CD40 and/or LPS. The DCs that contained beads were purified by passage over a magnetic column and subsequently phenotyped. Enrichment resulted in a population consisting of 80% CD11c(+) cells. Uptake of uncoated microparticles promoted DC maturation and the expression of CD80, CD86, and MHC-II molecules; beads coated with LPS and anti-CD40 further increased the expression of these co-stimulatory molecules, as well as the secretion of IL-12. Mice immunized subcutaneously with DCs containing beads coated with HCV NS5 protein, anti-CD40 and LPS exhibited significant antigen-specific, increases in IFN-gamma-producing CD4(+) T cells and CTL activity. This approach combines three critical elements necessary for efficient DC-based immunization that include DC enrichment, maturation and antigen targeting.

Kupffer cells abrogate cholestatic liver injury in mice.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Biliary obstruction and cholestasis can cause hepatocellular apoptosis and necrosis. Ligation of the common bile duct in mice provides an excellent model in which to study the underlying mechanisms. Kupffer cells play a key role in modulating the inflammatory response observed in most animal models of liver injury. This study was performed to determine the role of Kupffer cells in the injury attending cholestasis. METHODS: Mice were not treated or were rendered Kupffer cell-depleted by intravenous inoculation of multilamellar liposome-encapsulated dichloromethylene diphosphonate, the common bile duct was ligated and divided; sham-operated animals served as controls. Similarly, interleukin-6 (IL-6)-deficient and tumor necrosis factor-receptor-deficient mice underwent bile duct ligation (BDL) or sham operations. RESULTS: Serum alanine transaminase levels were increased in all BDL mice at 3 days after surgery, but were significantly higher in IL-6-deficient mice or mice rendered Kupffer cell-depleted before ligation. Histologic examination of BDL livers showed portal inflammation, neutrophil infiltration, bile duct proliferation, and hepatocellular necrosis. Photoimage analyses confirmed more necrosis in the livers of Kupffer cell-depleted and IL-6-deficient animals. Purified Kupffer cells derived from BDL animals produced more IL-6 in culture. Similarly, Kupffer cells obtained by laser capture microdissection from the livers of BDL mice expressed increased levels of IL-6 messenger RNA. Recombinant mouse IL-6 administered 1 hour before BDL completely reversed the increased liver damage assessed otherwise in Kupffer cell-depleted mice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that Kupffer cells abrogate cholestatic liver injury by cytokine-dependent mechanisms that include the production of IL-6.